Monday, April 11, 2022

ICE AGE PALEO AMERICANS: Southern Saskatchewan and Alberta

GeoNotes Cypress Hills and area

ICE AGE PALEO AMERICANS (20,000-8500 years before present) and their origins

Southern Saskatchewan and Alberta

As a general introduction, it is thought the ancestors of the First Nations, Native Americans, and South American indigenous cultures crossed the Beringia land-maritime bridge (Bering Land Bridge) which existed from 30,000 to10,000 years before the present (BP) between Lena River in Russia and the Mackenzie River in Canada approximately 16,500-12,000 years ago (Fig. 1). The migrants then moved south through an Ice-Free Corridor between the Cordilleran and the continental Laurentide ice sheets (Fig. 2). However, there are some discrepancies as to whether there was a biographical corridor that was open the entire length before 11,700 BP or whether it was completely open to travel by 13,800 BP. It was also thought that the 13,000-year-old Clovis cultures were the first to people the Americas. 


Figure 1: Beringia land-maritime bridge, a specific landmass between Lena River, Russia, and Mackenzie River, Canada 16,500 years ago. Image: US National Park Service                                                     


  Figure 2: The geography 14,900 years ago. Blue triangles representing Clovis-era sites are a small sample of the hundreds of discovered sites south of the continental ice sheet. Image: Modified after Wygal et al, 2021

But, with the finding of older pre-Clovis dates including those of 15,785 BP stemmed projectile points at the Cooper’s Ferry Site in Idaho, 50,000 BP at the Topper Site in South Carolina, 65,000-125,000 BP stone tools on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, and 130,000 BP at the Cerutti Mastodon Site near San Diego (Fig. 3), and with paleo indigenous and indigenous genome sequencing more baffling questions have arisen with few answers, leading to the conclusion that the peopling of the Americas is much more complex than originally thought. This challenges the existing theories and models of the origins of the first Americans and their migration routes. With paleo American archaeological discovery dates on both American continents being pushed back even further this leads to another conclusion that maybe the first people of the Americas have always been here, periodically replacing their older indigenous ancestors with newcomers or by morphing into a new culture.  

Figure 3: North American Great Plains region and site location map. Similar to the unforested grasslands of southeastern Europe and Siberia steppe. Image: modified after Geography321.

Jim Viera and Hugh Newman in their book “Giants On Record: Chapter 14” bring out even more surprising paleo cultural findings that are unique only to the Americas. For example, Cro-Magnon (archaic Homo sapien) man appeared suddenly in Europe around 45,000 years ago with stone tools discovered in Spain and other parts of Europe having styles that were fully developed in America dating back to 48,000 BP. Carbon dates from Cro-Magnon type skulls of the Del Mar Man (San Diego, CA) and a skull from Sunnyvale, CA date around 70,000 BP. It’s suggested by Werner Muller, mentioned by Viera and Newman, that Cro-Magnon man left America via the North Atlantic to Scandinavia and Western Europe around 44,000 years ago, that’s roughly when Cro-Magnon man first appeared in Europe. Viera and Newman allude to an 1896 discovery of an anatomically modern human skull in Buenos Aires, Argentina in strata dating 1-1.5 million years and another similar find, also in Argentina, in sediments 3-5 million years old. Both of these findings were swept under the rug and forgotten by Ales Hrdlicka, an evolutionist, of the Smithsonian Institute because they did not conform with the paleo-archeological rhetoric of the time.

Paleo archeological artifacts and surprising ages of millions of years not conforming with established ideas of human evolution are extensively documented in Michael Cremo’s book “Forebidden Archeology-The Hidden History of the Human Race”. Cremo mentions numerous examples of very crude to advanced stone tools discovered throughout the world in the mid to late 19th and early 20th century found in stratigraphic formations dating back to 35-55 million years (Eocene), and possibly earlier fashioned by the skeletal remains of those appearing to be anatomically modern humans. Examples of Eocene-Pleistocene (55-2 million years) advanced stone tools (mortars, pestles, platters, grinders, etc) similar to the ones used by modern North American indigenous people were discovered on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in central California. The late 19th century California gold rush not only yielded the discovery in auriferous (gold-bearing) gravels but also stone tool artifacts, rare human fossils, and Mastodon remains in places like Brandy City, Last Chance, Lost Camp, You Bet, and Poker Flat. Artifacts from deep mine shafts and tunnels, e.g. Tuolumne County Table Mountain, where the gold-bearing gravels are overlain by thick layers of volcanic material are in situ and have a more accurate date than gravels closer to the surface that may have been reworked by streams. Some artifacts from the Table Mountain mine are believed to be of Eocene age.  

The dynamics of paleo cultural interaction, the demise of older cultures, the pre-Columbian immigration to and emigration from the Americas, the extra-ordinary arrivals and departures that appear to be non-linear migration, and the secretive practices and stories of shamans and indigenous elders are not well understood by modern academia and, to some extent, alternative researchers. This lack of understanding along with the objectification and Darwinization, and the lack of subjective considerations of the ancient and paleo cultures has led to heated debates on a wide range of strongly conflicting controversial theories that in some cases resulted in tenured researchers and educators being ridiculed, disciplined and/or fired from their positions.

In general, based on genetics, the South American indigenous cultures tend to be more closely related to a now extinct culture of the South Pacific while the northern North American indigenous cultures are more closely related to their extant and extinct EuroSiberian ancestors. The extant Ket people in central Siberia, an ancient wandering tribe of a population of 1500 may have been a paleo American ancestor. Another extant central Siberian group with a population of 4250, the Selkup people, may also be an ancestor.

The timeline of paleo American cultural complexes appears to be based on a standard of ‘Clovis first’ (Fig. 4). Beringia had pre-, contemporaneous, and post-Clovis cultures living in the area. East Beringia could support a human population before 11,500 BP. It is not known whether these cultures remained local or to what extent they travel south. The Ice-Free Corridor may have been open and closed more than once during ice sheet advances and retreats of the Wisconsin glacial period. There is genetic evidence suggesting migrants periodically arrived in waves possibly crossing the land bridge and by sea along the west coast. The new migrants would occupy territory already inhabited by existing indigenous cultures.


Figure 4: The paleo American timeline. Image: Catherine Gilman, Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, NM.

The easiest surface fines of paleo American artifacts occur on the Great Plains where a few well preserved stratigraphically intact sites have yielded enough archaeological evidence to start piecing together America’s paleo cultures. There are several cultural complexes found on the plains each identified by their own characteristic stone tools. Finds may include hammerstones, scrapers, projectile points, bones, drills, osseous rods of various styles, and charcoal. Going from the oldest to the youngest spanning a time period of roughly 13,400-8,400 BP these complexes include Clovis, Folsom/Midland, Goshen, Agate Basin, Hell Gap, Alberta, and Cody. The sites are usually named after the geographic location where the artifacts were found. Even though these cultural complexes are treated separately in the timeline, there is some evidence of possible coexistence and interactions between some of these cultures and perhaps with paleo American cultures that have yet to be discovered.

One of the oldest sites in the US, the Folsom Site (Fig. 3), was discovered in 1908, but not scholarly investigated until 1926 near Folsom, NM. Here bones of an extinct subspecies of bison (Bison antiquus figginsi) and fluted projectile points were found. The Clovis Site (Fig. 3) was discovered in 1929 at Blackwater Draw located SW of Clovis, NM.

The oldest culture discussed in this article is the Clovis Complex. It is defined by its distinctive fluted stone projectile points characterized by a channel or groove scare running partway up the center of the point (Fig. 5). This flute scare can appear on one or both sides. Fluted projectile points have been found in Alaska but are believed not to be of Clovis origin. Since there is no evidence of Clovis artifacts in the Beringia and since, according to some researchers, the Ice Free Corridor was not open to a southern migration, it’s unlikely that the Clovis culture crossed Beringia. The geographic concentration of Clovis was south of the Laurentide ice sheet (Figs. 2 and 15) suggesting they originated somewhere in the continental US and were preceded by an unknown ancestral group. It should be noted paleo Americans contemporaneously occupied North and South America well before 13,000 BP.  It’s believed there is no direct link between the Clovis complex and the South American cultures, but the archaeological literature does hint at a questionable link between those cultures.

Central America had paleo American influences from both South and North America. Fluting technologies have long been recognized in South America, and are open to interpretation and believed unrelated to Clovis. A few artifacts of the Clovis complex technology have been recognized in Central America from Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Panama. Currently, the northern shore of Venezuela (El Cayude and Siraba sites) and a site in Chile (Nochaco site) are the only South American countries that may have been influenced by the Clovis complex. The dating and identification of many artifacts remain speculative and open to interpretation. 


Figure 5: Examples of Clovis fluted projectile points. For a more detailed look at projectile points see Jonathan Hall’s publication; Microsoft Word - Jonny Hall Thesis 2009.doc (core.ac.uk) or go to Projectile Point Identification Guide (projectilepoints.net). Image: Archaeology Magazine (Archaeological Institute of America)


Clovis drills. Image: Jonathan Hall (2009)

Folsom style (Fig. 6) points have also been found and are similar to the Clovis points except the flute runs up the entire length of the center from the base of the point. Like the Clovis points, the Folsom flute can be either on one or both sides of the point.



Figure 6: Examples of Folosm points. Images: Folsom Projectile Point (projectilepoints.net)

In Alberta, Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba as the climate began to drastically change with the Pleistocene/Early Holocene deglaciation (beginning 17,000 BP), and after 14,000 BP surface finds of fluted Clovis projectile points began to appear. To date, there are no intact burial cultural sites found in Saskatchewan only surface finds were discovered after 12,000BP.  

The oldest paleo American artifacts found in Saskatchewan and the Canadian Great Plains are the typical Clovis fluted, lanceolate (leaf style) shaped projectile points (Fig. 5). End scrappers, some spurred, have also been found. A typical Clovis tool consists of a cylindrical bone shaft (also known as osseous rods, Fig. 7), some made of ivory from tusks and others made from the long bone (thigh bone or femur) of mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius, M. columbi, M. jeffersonii) and mastodons (Mammut americanum) have also been found. One and only such find in Saskatchewan came from a site near Grenfell, SK (Fig. 8) in 1883 when Lt. Col. P.G.B. Lake was excavating a waterhole in a dry slough. Although not of Clovis era, this cylindrical bone shaft from a bison (approximately 8425 BP) shows longitudinal striations and indications of whittling. The site is just south of the ice front as it was positioned roughly 10,000 years ago. The osseous rods speculative uses include spear points, pressure flaker handles, wedges for splitting wood, sled shoes, levered hafted wedges, and possibly other uses.

Figure 7: Clovis bone/ivory rods also known as osseous rods. Image: Jonathan Hall (2009)


Figure 8: Canadian Great Plains region and site location map. Image: modified after William M Last, Faun M Ginn, 2005


Paleo Americans of the Great Plains were resourceful skilled hunters and successful hunting strategies required knowledge of animal behaviour, and environmental and geographic conditions. They were highly mobile following wildlife movements. Some of the common Pleistocene mammal species hunted were: mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius and M. columbi), several subspecies of bison (Bison antiquus, B. occidentalis, and later B. bison), horse (Equus conversidens), western camel (Camelops hesternus), wapiti or elk (Cervus canadensis), caribou (Rangifer tarandus), helmeted musk oxen (Bootherium bombifrons), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). It can not be ruled out that small mammals, birds, and fish along with various edible and medicinal flora may also have been part of their diet.

Clovis projectile points found in Saskatchewan are concentrated mainly in the southwest (Fig. 9) and are generally derived from nearby lithic sources.  The Clovis raw materials include Knife River Flint (abbreviated KRF, Eocene age, Golden Valley Formation) found in North Dakota 47%, Swan River Chert 5%, agate 10%, sandstone 5%, basalt 5%, silicified wood 5%, and cherts 23%.


Figure 9: Clovis fluted point distribution in Saskatchewan. Image: Jonathan Hall (2009)

Likewise, the Folsom projectile points are also located in the southern portion of the province (Fig. 10). The raw materials are less diverse than Clovis and consist of the following lithic sources: Knife River Flint 50%, agate 5%, non-local 5%, chalcedony 5%, and fine-grained cherts 35%.


Figure 10: Folsom fluted point distribution in Saskatchewan.  Image: Jonathan Hall (2009)


The third set of fluted projectile points come from an Atypical (also known as Northwestern, Charlie Lake Cave) culture, a catch-all category used by Hall (2009), that is neither Clovis nor Folsom (Fig. 11). These fluted points are found in the southern half of Saskatchewan and consist of a wide range of raw materials used to make the points. There is a significant decline in Knife River Flint indicating a reliance on local raw stone sources. The Atypical fluted type consists of the following raw materials: Knife River Flint 14%, Swan River Chert 25%, agate 3%, exotics 6%, chalcedony 11%, sandstone 6%, basalt 3%, quartzite 9%, silicified wood 3%, and cherts 20%. The reason for the decline of non-local material is speculative, possibly a familiarity with local sources, a decrease in seasonal mobility, and localized development of the Atypical fluted point style.

Figure 11: Atypical fluted point distribution in Saskatchewan. Image: Jonathan Hall (2009)


Both Clovis and the Folsom cultures are considered to be general foragers.   Basically, the Clovis preferred hunting mammoths whereas the Folsom preferred hunting now-extinct giant bison (Bison latifrons), and another extinct bison (Bison antiquus). The wide distribution of both cultures (Figs: 15 & 16) suggests they were extremely flexible and adaptable to their varied environments.

Other cultural evidence; the Clovis had burial practices that were discovered in Montana (Anzick Site) of a 1.5-year-old child (boy) whose remains are 12,984 years old. This site contains the only Clovis human remains discovered so far. A 2014 DNA study ( Fig. 12) showed the boy is closely related to all indigenous American populations and that the contemporary indigenous Americans are descendants of the Clovis culture. An Atypical or Northwestern Complex (not Clovis or Folsom) cultural practice at the Charlie Lake Cave Site ( Fig. 8) near St. John, BC includes a single perforated pentagonal stone bead and raven (Corvus corax) remains (10,500 BP). The raven remains hint of early ritual activity and may be associated with creation and hunting. Other finds at the cave are fluted projectile points, bison bones, and the presence of Cody artifacts but no Cody points. Cody is the youngest paleo American culture discussed in this article.

Figure 12: The Anzick boy DNA sample compared with 143 contemporary non-African human populations and 52 Native American populations. The boy’s DNA is closest to all 52 Native American groups, less close to Northern Native Americans, and distantly to Eurasian populations. Image: Morten Rasmussen, et al (2014).


The Clovis and Folsom Complexes were relatively short-lived.  Both cultures spread across the Great Plains, westward, and eastward remaining near the southern edge of the retreating ice front (Figs. 15 & 16).  The Clovis era ranges in age from approximately 13,250 to 12,750 BP, and the Folsom era from 12,610 to 12,170 BP with roughly a 200-year gap between the two complexes.  The Atypical is the youngest of fluted point complexes and may have interacted with earlier cultures.

The Clovis culture disappeared suddenly along with 37 megafauna genera around the Younger Dryas Event, 12,800 years ago, from a possible environmental shock of a comic impactor(s) that produced a major climate disruption and ecosystem change resulting in an extinction event in the Northern Hemisphere. Heavy losses in numbers were experienced by both the human and wildlife populations. Some researchers believe human overkill caused the extinction of some of the megafauna, while a strong possibility, others remain skeptical. The Folsom Complex was not affected by the Younger Dryas Event and came into archaeological prominence sometime after the event.  

The youngest culture discussed in this article is the Cody Complex (Fig, 14). Like the Clovis and Folsom cultures, the Cody culture has no artifacts in Beringia to date and extensively occupied regions, like its predecessors, south of the continental ice sheet. The Cody Complex represents a period from 11,600 to 8785 BP. It was first identified in 1951 at the Horner Site near Cody, Wyoming (Fig. 3). The bison kill site contained typical Cody style Eden and Scottsbluff projectile points, Cody knives, and bones of Bison antiquus.  By now the mammoths were greatly reduced in numbers, but not completely extinct grazing in small pockets on steppe grass in the northern regions of western Canada and parts of northern Siberia.

The Cody Complex projectile points (Figs. 13a & b) are non-fluted and fall under many point types which include; Alberta, Eden, Scottsbluff, Firstview, Winddust, and others. A typical Cody site consists of Alberta, Scottsbluff, and Eden projectile points, Cody knives, scrapers, and other tools. There is a regional variation in the lithic raw materials used including; obsidian, low-silica quartz, rhyolite, basalt, porcellanite (impure chert), siltstone, quartzite, chert, chalcedony, jasper, and flint (Knife River Flint). These sites are best examined by looking at excavated campsites and not buffalo kills. In the mountains, they used rock shelters and hunted seasonally before moving down to the foothills during the winter months. Some campsites show tool manufacturing while others were mainly residential and bison procurement sites (Fig. 14, for example, Fletcher Site, AB). Bison was one of the main food sources utilizing, in some cases, buffalo fences and jumps. The Cody culture was very adaptable to their environment and food needs. Some sites contain bones of deer, antelope, and other hoofed animals, ground squirrels, rabbits, and other small mammals. Fire pits, hearths, and charred bones were also found at some sites.


Figure 13a: Examples of Cody style points.  Image: projectilepoints.


Figure 13b: Cody style Alberta point.    Image: projectilepoints. 


An interesting archaeological discovery in SW Alberta, while constructing a new spillway at the St. Mary Reservoir, the Wally’s Beach Site (Fig. 8), resulted in several paleontological finds. When the water level was lowered, the exposed land surface was eroded due to high prairie winds uncovering a total of 100 projectile points some fluted others of Cody manufacturing including Alberta, Eden, and Scottsbluff points. Bones and tracks of Late Pleistocene (approximately 11,350 BP) mammoth, camel, bison, horse, caribou, and musk ox were also found.  It is estimated that 1.5-2.0 m of sediment was blown away from its original land surface providing promise to sites in Saskatchewan that there may be future finds deeply buried remaining undetected.

Saskatchewan has several Cody sites; Haskey, Dunn, NjNf-8, Heron Eden, Niska ( Fig. 14), and possibly others. The Niska Site contains Cody artifacts that follow the Scottsbluff tradition.   This site is a field initially plowed in the 1900s and is located between Ponteix and Aneroid, SK. The field is subject to wind erosion which exposes the artifacts. A local resident, Henri Liboiron, living near Ponteix began searching for artifacts in the 1960s. It’s not known if any artifacts have been discovered prior to the 1960s.  Liboiron was an avid archaeological hobbyist with quite a collection and documented information on these artifacts. It was his persuasion to get the Saskatchewan government to do a proper archaeological survey in the area that led to more extensive work by the government.   Details of the excavation consist of the following artifacts: stemmed projectile points, Cody knives, end scrapers, hearth location indicated by a concentration of burned desecrated bison bones, and unburned bones nearby.  The tools were predominantly made of brown chalcedony (Knife River Flint) and to a lesser extent speckled (dark specs) chalcedony, grey porcellanite, yellow jasper and, silicified peat. Some artifacts were made of clear chalcedony, grey chert, white chert, black chert, white quartzite, red porcellanite, and cream porcellanite.

It's not certain what ended the Cody or Folsom era. Very little is known about cultures older than Clovis.  Agate Basin, Dalton, Plainview, Goshen, Hell Gap, and Alberta paleo projectile points are mentioned in this article but not discussed because they were either too local and, with the exception of the Alberta point, not necessarily on the Canadian Plains representing paleo era artifacts.


Figure 14: Location map of Cody sites. Lake Agassiz was a huge glacial meltwater lake. Image: modified after Plains Anthropologist Vol 58:No 227/228:Memoir 41:2013.

To date, only a few paleo American sites have been excavated and studied in any detail. Much of the paleo cultural information is incomplete and open to interpretation. Paleo cultural artifacts can vary greatly within a particular cultural group, especially those that covered a large geographic region.

The Cody, Folsom, and Clovis complexes were the predominant paleo cultures of the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene on the North American Great Plains south of the continental ice sheet.  Paleo American artifacts and sites continue to be discovered, and the Cypress Hills may hold possible paleo treasures for future discoveries.  The hills are rich in resources that were used by the First Nation and Native American ancestors. Several temporary and long term ancient and prehistory camp sites have been found along the creeks flanking the Cypress Hills. One such site,  the Stampede Site near Elkwater, Alberta (Fig. 3) is one of the oldest sites dating 8000 years (Bitteroot people). This site is unique in that it is relatively uncommon to find a deeply stratified site where there are clear levels indicating different cultures and the impact of changing environments.  The bottom of this site is still open to further investigation but is currently underwater because of groundwater, and it continues to get older with depth leading to a possible discovery of paleo indigenous artifacts in the area.


Figure 15: Map of all the fluted points, including Clovis, discovered before 2008. Fluted points in Alaska are not considered Clovis. Image: PIDBA


Figure 16: Folsom and other paleo American cultures point discoveries before 2008. Image: PIDBA


Complete PIDBA database of paleo American artifacts discovered before 2008. Image: PIDBA 

Quaternary period timescale (2018) began with the Laurentide ice sheet, 2.58 million years ago to present. Abbreviations: “b2k” = before the year 2000. ka = thousands years before present. Ma = millions of years before present. Image: Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy

The very ancient doorway (portal) of Aramu Muru, Peru near Lake Titicaca. A functional interdimentional doorway. Only a Shaman has the knowledge to activate and access the portal. An example of non-linear migration.                                        Watch on youtube: Aramu Muru, Peru, Jerry Wills – YouTube.    Image: source unknown

Aramu Muru, Peru, Jerry Willis  


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Charles Kuss   2022              Updated: 06/29/24




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Location: Cypress Hills, SK